Museum Bank Indonesia

Museum Bank Indonesia

Museum, jika kita mendengar kata museum yang ada pada pikiran kita adalah sejarah, hal kuno, menyeramkan dan membosankan. Tapi itu benar-benar bertolak belakang saat kita mengunjungi museum Bank Indonesia yang beralamat di Pintu Besar Utara No. 3  Dekat dengan stasiun kota, Kota Tua, Jakarta Barat.

Di museum Bank Indonesia banyak cerita sejarah perekonomian di Indonesia dari masa penjajahan hingga saat ini. Karena yang kita ketahui Bank Indonesia (BI) merupakan bank sentral sebagai  lembaga yang sangat vital dalam kehidupan perekonomian nasional karena kebijakan yang diambil oleh BI akan memiliki dampak yang langsung dirasakan oleh masyarakat. Di museum tersebut juga terdapat contoh mata uang dari seluruh Negara di dunia, juga bentuk uang yang ada di Indonesia dari dahulu hingga sekarang yang masih berlaku di masyarakat. Kita mengetahui uang yang beredar dan sah sebagai alat tukar menukar di Indonesia ialah resmi dicetak atas naungan Bank Indonesia.

Museum ini awalnya merupakan sebuah rumah sakit Binnen Hospitaal, lalu kemudian digunakan menjadi sebuah bank yaitu De Javashe Bank (DJB) pada tahun 1828. Lalu setelah kemerdekaan yaitu pada tahun 1953, bank ini di-nasionalisasikan menjadi bank sentral Indonesia atau Bank Indonesia. Tapi tidak lama, yaitu tahun 1962, Bank Indonesia pindah ke gedung yang baru. Gedung ini dibiarkan kosong, namun dewan gubernur BI menghargai nilai sejarah yang tinggi atas gedung tersebut, sehingga memanfaatkan dan melestarikannya menjadi Museum Bank Indonesia. Museum ini diresmikan pada 15 Desember 2006 oleh gubernur BI, Burhanuddin Abdullah.

Awal memasuki museum kita disambut ramah olah petugas di museum, kita tidak perlu membayar 1 Rupiah pun untuk dapat masuk dan menikmati wisata sejarah tersebut alias GRATIS, banyak pengunjung khususnya pelajar yang menikmati wisata tersebut ada yang antusias dengan wahana nermain sambil belajar yang disediakan pengelola, ada yang terjaga saat mencatat keragaman sejarah perekonomian Indonesia, atau ada juga hanya melakukan foto-foto akan keunikan arsitektur bangunan dari museum Bank Indonesia. Banyak juga pengunjung asing yang dating karena memang orang asing lebih menyukai wisata sejarah yang unik yang jarang di Indonesia.

Akses yang mudah juga yang membuat banyak masyarakat khususnya warga Jakarta yang dating ke Museum Bank Indonesia. Kita bisa menempuh dengan kereta jurusan Kota, ujung dari jalur kereta arah Jakarta, dari Stasiun Kota ( stasiun Beos Kota ) kita bisa langsung dengan berjalan kaki menuju museum tersebut.

Dari segi kebersihan, museum Bank Indonesia cukup baik karena memang ini wisata indoor dan para pengunjung dilarang membawa makanan dan minuman.  Lobi terlihat mewah dengan kondisi yang sangat bersih, dan sangat sejuk walaupun di siang hari terik, karena gedung ini Full AC.

Kita patut bangga memiliki banyak wisata sejarah yang banyak diminat juga oleh wisata asing, kita wajib mengetahui sejarah perekonomian di Indonesia.

Astri Puji Lestari

3 SA 03

14609862

curug cikaso

CURUG CIKASO

UJUNG GENTENG

www.gunadarma.ac.id

Ujung Genteng, merupakan daerah pesisir pantai selatan Jawa Barat yang terletak di Kecamatan Ciracap, Kabupaten Sukabumi dengan jarak tempuh sekitar 230 kilometer dari Ibu Kota Jakarta. Jika kita melihat peta, daerah tersebut memang benar-benar di ujung selatan Jawa Barat.  Waktu tempuhnya sekitar tujuh atau delapan jam perjalanan menggunakan mobil dan juga terdapat beberapa jalur alternatif yang bisa ditempuh serta sarana angkutan umum yang memadai menuju tempat tujuan. Rute yang harus ditempuh adalah Jakarta – Bogor – Peabuhan Ratu – Jampang Kulon – Surade – Ujung Genteng.

Awalnya,, teman saya mengirimkan pesan kepada saya tentang rencana libura awal tahun setelah perayaan pergantiaan tahun baru. Dia mengatakan rencana kita akan pergi ke Ujung Genteng,, heran bin heran. Ku pikir itu adalah wisata indoor (dalam gedung) dan terdapat dipuncak menara atau gedung tinggi,, namanya juga Ujung Genteng. Tapi ternyata setelah aku searching di google ternyata Ujung Genteng adalah nama sebuah daerah di Sukabumi dan di sana terdapat curug, pantai, dan penangkaran penyu.

Jika membayangkan tempat tersebut memang benar-benar indah, tetapi saat kita menempuh perjalanannya,, waaaww,,,  Memang, jalanan yang melintang sepanjang perjalanan cukup mulus, tidak banyak jalan-jalan yang rusak  tetapi, jalalan yang kami temput melebihi  perjalanan meuju Puncak Bogor. Jalanan semakin lama semakin berbelok-belok, jalan juga tak terlalu lebar. Lebih hebatnya kita memang melewati hutan belantara tanpa ada penerangan sedikitpun dan itu lama sekali, hanya supir berpengalaman yang mampu,,, bisa dibayangkan apalagi saat memasuki Jawa Barat telah lewat pukul 12 malam, memang kami harap-harap cemas,, apa lagi saat kita menemui persimpangan tanpa papan jalan, binggung mana yang benar, kita harus behenti menunggu mobil lewat untuk bertanya arah da itu pukul 3 pagi sangat sedikit mobil yang lewat daerah seperti itu, benar-benar sedikit tapi kami biasa menempuh perjalanan malam, memang dari malam suasana sangat dingin, siapkan jaket tebal dan obat mual, itu hal yang pasti akan dirasakan.

Setelah memasuki daerah Ujung Gentang sudah subuh sekitar pukul 5 pagi, cukup sudah perjalanan tuk hari pertama. Kami memutuskan mengunjungi Curug Cikaso terlebih dahulu di pagi hari, tapi saying saat itu musim hujan jadi aliran curug tak telalu jernih. Setelah memarkirkan kendaraan kami,, kami berjalan kami menuju curug tersebut. Sebenarnya ada dua cara yang dapat ditempuh. Pertama kita bisa menyewa perahu selama 10 menit sebesar 60.000 pulang dan pergi melewati sungai besar atau bisa juga cara kedua yaitu dengan beralan kaki melewati persawahan dan bukit kecil.

Curug Cikaso memiliki 3 jalur air terjun yang cukup tinggi,, tempat ini tidak bisa digunakan untuk berenang karena arusnya cukup deras tapi pemandangannya cukup indah untuk dipandang. Untuk kebersihan,, maaf tapi kami menilai ini dapat mengurangi keindahan curug. Banyak tedapat sampah yang berserakan dan sedikit sekali pengelola menyediakan tempat sampah. Lagi-lagi masalah sampah.

Cukup ironi,, kita membayar Rp 2.000 untuk setiap wisatawan, tapi sedikit kurang sebanding dengan fasilitas yang ada. Semoga saat kami lain waktu berkunjung ke curug Cikaso tak ada lagi hal semacam sampah yang mengurangi indahnya curug J.

Astri Puji Lestari

3 SA 03

14609862

psycological approach 7

Self Worth and Positive Regard

Carl Rogers
http://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html



Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth.
How we think about ourselves, our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance both to psychological health and to the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and achieve self-actualization.
Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low.  For Carl Rogers (1959) a person who has high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him or her self, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with people.
A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.
Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.
Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued, respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.
Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accepts and loves the person for what he or she is.  Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake.  The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times.  People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from others, especially their parents in childhood.
Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise and approval, depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct.  Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s).  At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child.

psychological approach 6

Hierarchy of Needs

The Five Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/hierarchyneeds.htm

 

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

J. Finkelstein

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 Psychologist Abraham Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation"¹ and his subsequent book Motivation and Personality.² This hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs.

This hierarcy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs are located at the top of the pyramid. Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water, sleep, and warmth. Once these lower-level needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs, which are for safety and security.
As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social. Soon, the need for love, friendship, and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority. Like Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.

Types of Needs

Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behavior. Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences.
Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid as growth needs (also known as being needs or B-needs). Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.

Five Levels of the Hierarchy of Needs

There are five different levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

1. Physiological Needs
   These include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met.


2. Security Needs
   These include needs for safety and security. Security needs are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the physiological needs. Examples of security needs include a desire for steady employment, health insurance, safe neighborhoods, and shelter from the environment.


3. Social Needs
   These include needs for belonging, love, and affection. Maslow considered these needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs. Relationships such as friendships, romantic attachments, and families help fulfill this need for companionship and acceptance, as does involvement in social, community, or religious groups.


4. Esteem Needs
   After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs becomes increasingly important. These include the need for things that reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.


5. Self-actualizing Needs
   This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested fulfilling their potential.

psychological approach 5

learn more about psychological approach with abraham maslow
enjoy it !!!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bo1fnexCY8

pschological approach 4

Types of Literary Criticism: Psychological Criticism

Michelle Foster, Yahoo! Contributor Network

The psychological literary critic view literary work from the psychological approach. Much of the human mental process takes place in the subconscious mind and reveals itself through symbols and codes. According to Sigmund Freud, these codes are designed for the subconscious to conceal its thoughts from the conscious mind. The psychological literary critic seeks to decode these meanings within the work of a writer by analyzing the writer's psychology as it applies to the works that he or she has written. There are three approaches to psychological criticism. The first approach is to investigate that psychological process of art and how it relates to normal mental functions. This approach takes into account the effect that the work has on the reader. How the work impacts the mental and sensory functions of the reader is as major concern for the psychological literary critic.
The second approach to dealing with psychological literary criticism is to study the psychology of the writer. This approach seeks to understand the motivations and behavior of the writer. What makes him tick. This helps the psychological critic understand the work better because it reveals those subconscious nuances that are released in the symbolism of the work that might otherwise be missed.
The third approach to psychological literary criticism is to analyze fictional characters. The writer can live out subconscious wishes and desires through the characters he or she creates and to analyze these characters give insight into the psychology of the writer. It attempts to bring modern insights of human behavior into the study of how the fictional character behaves.
Psychological criticism carefully examines the surface of the work, the main story or the seemingly apparent meaning of the piece, while speculating about what is really going on with the character and the writer in the meantime, what lies beneath'"what is the hidden message of the piece. There are often unspoken memories, motivations and fears at work which shape the characters which the writer writes about'"either in the mind of the writer, or qualities that the writer gives the character, especially fictional characters that can be more easily manipulated than real characters. These hidden motivations are what shapes the work and gives it meaning.
Psychological critics also look at the language used by the writer which can give a lot of insight to the piece as well. Freud suggested that jokes and slips of the tongue are evidence of the speaker's fears and desires, which is among the things that the psychological literary critic is looking for.
Sources:
Literature, An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing, 11d, X. J. Kennedy and Dana Gioia, © 2010.
http://voices.yahoo.com/types-literary-criticism-psychological-8414503.html


my conclusion ===>

Sigmund Freud was a psychologist. According to him, all human thought processes in its own consciousness and it is expressed through the code. The psychological literary writings by decode it.
There are three approaches to psychological criticism:
1. Psychological approch to knowing psychological criticism of art, whether associated with a normal mental function.
2. Psychological approach to learn psychological of the author, what is the motivation and attitude that make her job better.
3. Psychological approach to understand the fictional character, trying to figure out the character of the author, these characters give insight into the psychology of the author.
Psychological critics also look at the language used by the author that can give a lot of knowledge. Freud suggested that jokes is evidence of the speaker's fears and desires that the psychological literary critic is looking for.
astri,,,

pschological approach 3

Psychological Criticism: This approach reflects the effect that modern psychology has had upon both literature and literary criticism. It is akin to biographical criticism as it looks at the author--this time from a psychoanalytic stance. Fundamental figures in psychological criticism include Sigmund Freud, whose "psychoanalytic theories changed our notions of human behavior by exploring new or controversial areas like wish-fulfillment, sexuality, the unconscious, and repression" as well as expanding our understanding of how "language and symbols operate by demonstrating their ability to reflect unconscious fears or desires"; and Carl Jung, whose theories about the  unconscious are also a key foundation of mythological criticism (see below). Psychological criticism has a number of approaches, but in general, it usually employs one (or more) of three approaches:

     1. An investigation of "the creative process of the artist: what is the nature of literary genius and how does it relate to normal mental functions?" 
     2. The psychological study of a particular artist, usually noting how an author's biographical circumstances affect or influence their motivations and/or behavior. 

     3. The analysis of fictional characters using the language and methods of psychology. 

http://www.charlesyoungs.com/english12honors/criticalapproachestoliterature.html

Psychological approach to literature 2

Psychological Approach to Literature

Psychological approaches to literature continue to fascinate and unpack whole new ways of viewing and interpreting literature. Using numerous psychological constructs that have developed over recent years, this course will dig deep into the subterranean world of the mind as it is presented in literary works of the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century literature. Consider Hamlet as a passing example: intensely conflicted, he is unable to machete a path through the tangled woods of Danish power politics. To see his plight through a psychological lens, however, we might note that Hamlet suffers from identity diffusion instead of identity formation—that is, because his sense of self is so diffused and ill-formed, he is unable to take control of his destiny, lapses into despondency, and eventually paralysis of the will. Or consider Cordelia’s infamous silence when Lear asks her to voice her love for him: grant it, there are numerous ways of interpreting her passivity, but when we consider her response through a psychological lens, we can speak of her fear of self-disclosure: other characters in the play, notably Lear, equate this lack of self-disclosure with inauthenticity and exaggerated and unhealthy self-monitoring.

The course, in short, will equip the student with psychological theories—and its attendant vocabulary—which will make possible a whole new way of reading classic masterpieces of the Renaissance. Likely texts include Milton’s Paradise Lost; some Shakespeare plays; poetic gems from Donne, Herbert, and other poets; and excerpts from prose writers of the era. While greatly expanding one’s knowledge base, this course will be particularly rewarding and fun, too.

by Dr. Ron Shafer

 http://www.iup.edu/page.aspx?id=53505

psychological approach to leterature 1

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH

by Sigmund Freud
http://www.psychologistworld.com/psychologists/freud_1.php

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a movement that popularized the theory that unconscious motives control much behavior. He became interested in hypnotism and how it could be used to help the mentally ill. He later abandoned hypnotism in favor of free association and dream analysis in developing what is now known as "the talking cure." These became the core elements of psychoanalysis. Freud was especially interested in what was then called hysteria, and is now called conversion syndrome.

Freud, his theories, and his treatment of his patients were controversial in 19th century Vienna, and remain hotly debated today. Freud's ideas are often discussed and analyzed as works of literature and general culture in addition to continuing debate around them as scientific and medical treatises.

His life

He was born Sigismund Schlomo Freud in Freiberg, Moravia, the Austrian Empire (now Pribor in the Czech Republic). In 1877, he abbreviated his name from Sigismund Schlomo Freud to Sigmund Freud.

Little is known of Freud's early life as he twice destroyed his personal papers, once in 1885 and again in 1907. Additionally, his later papers were closely guarded in the Sigmund Freud Archives and only available to Ernest Jones, his official biographer, and a few other members of the inner circle of psychoanalysis. The work of Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson shed some light on the nature of the suppressed material.

Freud's daughter Anna Freud was also a distinguished psychologist, particularly in the fields of child and developmental psychology. Sigmund is the grandfather of painter Lucian Freud and comedian and writer Clement Freud, and the great-grandfather of journalist Emma Freud, fashion designer Bella Freud and PR man Matthew Freud.

Freud's Innovations

Freud has been influential in two related, but distinct ways. He simultaneously developed a theory of the human mind and human behavior, and a clinical technique for helping unhappy (i.e. neurotic) people. Many people claim to have been influenced by one but not the other.

Perhaps the most significant contribution Freud has made to modern thought is his conception of the unconscious. During the 19th century the dominant trend in Western thought was positivism, the claim that people could accumulate real knowledge about themselves and their world, and exercise rational control over both. Freud, however, suggested that these claims were in fact delusions; that we are not entirely aware of what we even think, and often act for reasons that have nothing to do with our conscious thoughts. The concept of the unconscious was groundbreaking in that he proposed that awareness existed in layers and there were thoughts occurring "below the surface." Dreams, called the "royal road to the unconscious" provided the best examples of our unconscious life, and in The Interpretation of Dreams Freud both developed the argument that the unconscious exists, and developed a method for gaining access to it.

The Preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought—that which we could access with a little effort. (The term "subconscious" while popularly used, is not actually part of psychoanalytical terminology.) Although there are still many adherents to a purely positivist and rationalist view, most people, including many who reject other elements of Freud's work, accept the claim that part of the mind is unconscious, and that people often act for reasons of which they are not conscious.

Crucial to the operation of the unconscious is "repression." According to Freud, people often experience thoughts and feelings that are so painful that people cannot bear them. Such thoughts and feelings—and associated memories—could not, Freud argued, be banished from the mind, but could be banished from consciousness. Thus they come to constitute the unconscious. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that individual patients repress different things. Moreover, Freud observed that the process of repression is itself a non-conscious act (in other words, it did not occur through people willing away certain thoughts or feelings). Freud supposed that what people repressed was in part determined by their unconscious. In other words, the unconscious was for Freud both a cause and effect of repression.

Freud sought to explain how the unconscious operates by proposing that it has a particular structure. He proposed that the unconscious was divided into three parts: Id, Ego, and Superego. The Id (Latin, = "it" = es in the original German) represented primary process thinking — our most primitive need gratification type thoughts. The Superego represented our conscience and counteracted the Id with moral and ethical thoughts. The Ego stands in between both to balance our primitive needs and our moral/ethical beliefs. A healthy ego provides the ability to adapt to reality and interact with the outside world in a way that accommodates both Id and Superego. The general claim that the mind is not a monolithic or homogeneous thing continues to have an enormous influence on people outside of psychology. Many, however, have questioned or rejected the specific claim that the mind is divided into these three components.

Freud was especially concerned with the dynamic relationship between these three parts of the mind. Freud argued that the dynamic is driven by innate drives. But he also argued that the dynamic changes in the context of changing social relationships. Some have criticized Freud for giving too much importance to one or the other of these factors; similarly, many of Freud's followers have focused on one or the other.

Freud developed the concept of overdetermination to account for the multiple determining causes in the interpretation of dreams rather than rely on a simple model of one-to-one correspondence between causes and effects.

Freud believed that humans were driven by two instinctive drives, libidinal energy/Eros and the death instinct/thanatos. Freud's description of Eros/Libido included all creative, life-producing instincts. The Death Instinct represented an instinctive drive to return to a state of calm, or non-existence and was based on his studies of protozoa. (See: Beyond the Pleasure Principle). Many have challenged the scientific basis for this claim.

Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse," meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that as humans developed they fixated on different, and specific, objects—first oral (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then anal (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in controlling his or her bowels), then phallic. Freud argued that children then passed through a stage where they fixated on the parent of the opposite sex. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay need gratification. (see Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.)

Freud's model of psycho-sexual development has been criticized from different perspectives. Some have attacked Freud's claim that infants are sexual beings (and, implicitly, Freud's expanded notion of sexuality). Others have accepted Freud's expanded notion of sexuality, but have argued that this pattern of development is not universal, nor necessary for the development of a healthy adult. Instead, they have emphasized the social and environmental sources of patterns of development. Moreover, they call attention to social dynamics Freud de-emphasized or ignored (such as class relations).

Freud hoped to prove that his model, based primarily on observations of middle-class Viennese, was universally valid. He thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud used the Greek tragedy by Sophocles Oedipus Rex to point out how much we (specifically, young boys) desire incest, and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of an tribal Oedipal conflict (see Totemism and Taboo). Although many scholars today are intrigued by Freud's attempts to re-analyze cultural material, most have rejected his specific interpretations as forced.
Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring to consciousness repressed thoughts and feelings, in order to allow the patient to develop a stronger ego. Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging the patient to talk in "free-association" and to talk about dreams. Another important element of psychoanalysis is a relative lack of direct involvement on the part of the analyst, which is meant to encourage the patient to project thoughts and feelings onto the analyst. Through this process, called "transference," the patient can reenact and resolve repressed conflicts, especially childhood conflicts with (or about) parents.

A lesser known interest of Freud's was neurology. He was an early researcher on the topic of cerebral palsy, then known as "cerebral paralysis". He published several medical papers on the topic. He also showed that the disease existed far before other researchers in his day began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during the birth process being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom of the problem. It was not until the 1980s when his speculations were confirmed by more modern research.

Freudian theory and practice have been challenged by empirical findings over the years. Some people continue to train in, and practice, traditional Freudian psychoanalysis, but most psychiatrists today reject the large majority of Freud's work as unsupported by evidence and best used for inspiration or historical study, if at all. Although Freud developed his method for the treatment of neuroses, some people today seek out psychoanalysis not as a cure for an illness, but as part of a process of self-discovery.

Freudian Psychoanalysis, Psychology, and Psychiatry

Freud trained as a medical doctor, and consistently claimed that his research methods and conclusions were scientific. Nevertheless, his research and practice were condemned by many of his peers. Moreover, both critics and followers of Freud have observed that his basic claim, that many of our conscious thoughts and actions are motivated by unconscious fears and desires, implicitly challenges universal and objective claims about the world (proponents of science conclude that this invalidates Freudian theory; proponents of Freud conclude that this invalidates science). Psychoanalysis today maintains the same ambivalent relationship with medicine and academia that Freud experienced during his life.

Clinical psychologists, who seek to treat mental illness, relate to Freudian psychoanalysis in different ways. Some clinical psychologists have modified this approach and have developed a variety of "psychodynamic" models and therapies. Other clinical psychologists reject Freud's model of the mind, but have adapted elements of his therapeutic method, especially his reliance on patients' talking as a form of therapy. Experimental psychologists generally reject Freud's methods and theories. Like Freud, Psychiatrists train as medical doctors, but—like most medical doctors in Freud's time—most reject his theory of the mind, and generally rely more on drugs than talk in their treatments.
 
Freud's psychological theories are hotly disputed today and many leading academic and research psychiatrists regard him as a charlatan. Although Freud was long regarded as a genius, psychiatry and psychology have long since been recast as scientific disciplines, and psychiatric disorders are generally considered diseases of the brain whose etiology is principally genetic. Freud's lessening influence in psychiatry is thus largely due to the repudiation of his theories and the adoption of many of the basic scientific principles of Freud's principal opponent in the field of psychiatry, Emil Kraepelin. In his book "The Freudian Fraud", research psychiatrist E. Fuller-Torrey provides an account of the political and social forces which combined to raise Freud to the status of a divinity to those who needed a theoretical foundation for their political and social views. Many of the diseases which used to be treated with Freudian and related forms of therapy (such as schizophrenia) have been unequivocally demonstrated to be impervious to such treatments.

Freud's notion that the child's relationship to the parent is responsible for everything from psychiatric diseases to criminal behavior has also been thoroughly discredited and the influence of such theories is today regarded as a relic of a permissive age in which "blame-the-parent" was the accepted dogma. For many decades genetic and biological causes of psychiatric disorders were dismissed without scientific investigation in favor of environmental (parental and social) influences. Today even the most extreme Freudian environmentalists would not deny the great influence of genetic and biological factors. The American Psychiatric Association's "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual" (the latest edition of which is the DSM-IV), the official standard for diagnosing psychological disorders in the USA, reflects the universal adoption of the neo-Kraepelinian scientific-biological approach to psychiatric disorders, with its emphasis on diagnostic precision and the search for biological and genetic etiologies—largely ignored during the earlier Freud-dominated decades of the twentieth century.

Translation Theory 7

you can watch this video to know more abot translation
enjoy it !!!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fDEF56ZlMVE

Translation Theory 6

Larson, Mildred L

http://www.seasite.niu.edu/trans/articles/Translation%20Theory%20and%20Practice.htm

Translation Theory and Practice

(Source:  http://www.sil.org/)
Good theory is based on information gained from practice. Good practice is based on carefully worked-out theory. The two are interdependent. (Larson l991, p. 1)

The ideal translation will be accurate as to meaning and natural as to the receptor language forms used. An intended audience who is unfamiliar with the source text will readily understand it. The success of a translation is measured by how closely it measures up to these ideals.
The ideal translation should be…

• Accurate: reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text.
• Natural: using natural forms of the receptor language in a way that is appropriate to the kind of text being translated.
• Communicative: expressing all aspects of the meaning in a way that is readily understandable to the intended audience.

Translation is a process based on the theory that it is possible to abstract the meaning of a text from its forms and reproduce that meaning with the very different forms of a second language.

Translation, then, consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (Larson l998, p. 3)

Diagram from Larson l998, p. 4

In practice, there is considerable variation in the types of translations produced by translators. Some translators work only in two languages and are competent in both. Others work from their first language to their second language, and still others from their second language to their first language. Depending on these matters of language proficiency, the procedures used will vary from project to project. In most projects in which SIL is involved, a translation team carries on the project. Team roles are worked out according to the individual skills of team members. There is also some variation depending on the purpose of a given translation and the type of translation that will be accepted by the intended audiences.

Translation Theory 5

How to Avoid Communication Breakdowns in Translation or Interpretation? by Sahar Farrahi Avval Islamic Azad University, Shahreza Branch, Isfahan, Iran http://translationjournal.net/journal/56breakdown.htm

Abstract It happens to all people while communicating (speaking or writing), that they are unable to get their messages across and express what they mean and what they understand (called Communication Breakdowns). Through communication, people send and receive messages and negotiate meaning (Rubin and Thompson, 1994). Generally speaking, communication breakdowns may happen to anybody communicating in a language other than their dominant language. This problem, surely, can be solved, but how? In this article, we will attempt to show you how and when breakdowns happen during the communication process and show you the measures by which you can overcome breakdowns to improve the effectiveness of communication in both speaking and writing (including translation), bearing in mind that translation itself is a kind and way of communication. Key words: communicating, communication breakdowns, negotiate meaning, translation 1- Introduction n this section, first, we will provide some definitions of communication and communication breakdowns offered by scholars in the field and show you when communication breakdowns occur; then, in the following sections, we will provide tips to overcome communication breakdowns during the act of communication. Culture refers to a group's shared values and conventions, which act as mental guidelines for orienting people's thoughts and behavior. Communication has different forms and it takes place in different situations. For example, you can communicate with others with your body gesture. You can also communicate with other people by speaking or by typing an email. But in this article, by communication we mean translation. After providing some definitions for communication, we will provide some statements regarding translation as a communication process. 1-1 Communication People communicate to satisfy their needs. Communication can be carried out through different methods but the most effective method is through language. Communication is defined as: the exchange of ideas, information, etc., between two or more individuals. In an act of communication there is usually at least one speaker or sender, a MESSAGE which is transmitted, and an individual or individuals for whom this message is intended (the receiver),( Rihards and Schmidt, 2002). In CLT, "communication" means using language to make requests, give advice, agree and disagree, complain, praise, to try to persuade people to do things, and so on, (O'Neill, 2000). 1-2 Translation as a communication process From the teleological point of view, translation is a process of communication; the objective of translating is to impart the information contained in the original text to the foreign reader ( Levy, 1967 as cited in Hatim and Munday, 2004). Translation is a communication process that involves the transfer of a message from a source language to a target language. Text linguistics, which is concerned with the way the parts of text are organized and related to one another in order to form a meaningful whole, is useful for the analysis of the translation process and the transfer of meaning from one language to another ( Darwish, 2003). Hatim and Mason (1997) consider translation as "an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication." In most cases, according to Houbert (1998 as cited in Ordudari, 2008), "translation is to be understood as the process whereby a message expressed in a specific source language is linguistically transformed in order to be understood by readers of the target language". Through translation, the meaning moves between languages and by translation, new ideas, cultural notions, new technologies, etc. are allowed to be transmitted into other cultures and societies. By translation, people of different countries can communicate to share information. 1-3 Communication breakdowns While communicating (speaking, regardless of whether it is our native language or a second language, writing, or translating), some breakdown in our speaking and getting across our meaning will occur because of the lack and weakness of the communicator's knowledge of vocabulary or grammar. These breakdowns are called "communication breakdowns or difficulties" because they create problems while exchanging information between interlocutors. Communication breakdowns occur frequently and are unavoidable and can happen under specific conditions. Communication breakdowns in translation/ interpretation are the result of deficiency in one or more of the following: Language competence Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the target language Cultural differences and socio-cultural backgrounds Punctuation (in translation) Feedback from the interlocutors Characteristics of the receivers 2- How to avoid communication breakdowns2-1 A good language competence In the act of communication, no matter what language is spoken, between or among people of different languages, one of the most important competences is the ability to use communication strategies (CS), i.e., strategies to overcome communication breakdowns caused by inadequate competence.To understand better what competence and communication strategies are, let us provide some brief definitions. 2-1- 1 Competence Competence as Richards and Schmidt (2002, 93) state is "the implicit system of rules that constitutes a person's knowledge of a language. This includes a person's ability to create and understand sentences, including sentences they have never heard before, knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular language, and the ability to recognize ambiguous and deviant sentences. By competence, Chomsky means the shared knowledge of the ideal speaker-listener set in a completely homogenous speech community. Such underlying knowledge allows the speaker to produce and the listener to understand an infinite set of sentences out of a finite set of rules. Here, we prefer to replace the term" competence" with the term "language competence" to make it more specific. Since 1960s, various models of language competence have emerged, proposed by Hymes, Canale, Swain, Bachman, Brown, Cummins, Stern, Hansegard, van Ek, Moirand, Schachter, et al. ( Li and Ping, 2007). Most of the researchers and applied linguists (Hymes, Canale, Swain, Bachman, Brown, Stern, Hansegard, et al.) hold that linguistic knowledge/grammatical competence is the basic component of language competence. Canale & Swain (1980) state that grammatical competence is the ability to use the forms of the language (sounds, words, and sentence structure). We limit ourselves here to a definition of competence by Savignon (1972, 1997).Competence is defined in terms of the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning and looks from both psycholinguistic and sociocultural perspectives in second language acquisition (SLA) research to account for its development. 2-1-2 Communication strategies (CSs) CSs, as was mentioned above, are tactics or strategies used to overcome communication breakdowns caused by the inadequate competence. According to Tarone (1981), communication strategy is a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where the requisite meaning structures are not shared. The earliest study in this field is the taxonomic approach by Tarone (1977; 1981). Her methodology has served as a basis for subsequent studies of communication strategies, resulting in further typologies. (Bialystok 1990). She suggested CS typology based on output differences in the task-based interaction between native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNSs). To be more acquainted with CSs, here, we bring some typologies offered by some scholars of the field. A model by Tarone (1977, 1983 as cited in Kongsom 2009) has been offered as follows: Table 2.1 Tarone's taxonomy of CSs (1977, 1983)1. Avoidancea Topic avoidance b Message abandonment 2. Paraphrasea Approximation b Word coinage c Circumlocution 3. Conscious transfera Literal translation b Language switch 4. Appeal for assistance 5. MimeAnother model is offered proposed by Faerch and Kasper (1983 as sited in Kongsom 2009), as seen in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Faerch and Kasper's taxonomy of CSs (1) Avoidance (1.1) Formal reduction: 1.1.1 Phonological 1.1.2 Morphological 1.1.3 Grammar (1.2) Functional reduction: 1.2.1 Actional 1.2.2 Propositional 1.2.3 Modal (2) Achievement (2.1) Non-cooperative: 2.1.1.1 Codeswitching 2.1.1.2 Foreignizing 2.1.2 Interlanguage strategies: 2.1.2.1 Substitution 2.1.2.2 Generalization   2.1.2.3 Exemplification 2.1.2.4 Word-coining 2.1.2.5 Restructuring 2.1.2.6 Description 2.1.3 Non-linguistic strategies: 2.1.3.1 Mime 2.1.3.2 Imitation (2.2) Cooperative: 2.2.1 Appeals   Different scholars have proposed different taxonomies but they have many elements in common and named differently. 2-2 Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language (Nordquist, 2010). In our Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms (Nordquist, 2010) you'll find two definitions of grammar: The systematic study and description of a language. A set of rules and examples dealing with the syntax and word structures of a language, usually intended as an aid to the learning of that language. Language is a set of words combining together to carry the meaning. Not all sets of words can carry the meaning, so words should be combined based on specific structures or rules. These rules are called grammar. Each language has its own rules. The study of grammar all by itself will not necessarily make you a better writer. But by gaining a clearer understanding of how your language works, you should also gain greater control over the way you shape words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs. In short, studying grammar may help you become a more effective writer. The choice of words influences the degree to which the receivers can understand the translator/ interpreter. Great attention should be paid to every single characteristic of the words through which communication is carried out by the translator/ interpreter. 2-3 cultural differences and socio-cultural backgrounds Culture is a set of beliefs, ideas, attitudes, customs, behaviors, festivals, cuisine and clothes styles. But on a deeper level we can consider culture as the organizer of all these elements. Culture actually refers to a group's shared values and conventions, which act as mental guidelines for orienting people's thoughts and behavior. (House, 2009 as cited in Karimipur 2009). The National Center for Cultural Competence defines culture as an "integrated pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts, communications, languages, practices, beliefs, values, customs, courtesies, rituals, manners of interacting and roles, relationships and expected behaviors of a racial, ethnic, religious or social group; and the ability to transmit the above to succeeding generations" (Goode, Sockalingam, Brown, & Jones, 2000 as sited in Peterson and Coltrane 2003). This means that language is not only part of how we define culture; it also reflects culture. Thus, the culture associated with a language cannot be learned in a few lessons about celebrations, folk songs, or costumes of the area in which the language is spoken. Culture is a much broader concept that is inherently tied to many of the linguistic concepts taught in second language classes and Language learners need to be aware, for example, of the culturally appropriate ways to address people, express gratitude, make requests, and agree or disagree with someone (Peterson and Coltrane 2003). Although common culture and common language facilitate trade between people (Lasear, 1995), we do not unify cultures in translation or interpretation. We state that one of problematic areas in communication via translation can be the cultural differences between the culture of speaker or translator and that of his/ her audience. There are many ways to correct this problem. While a new cultural concept is introduced by the translator/ interpreter or speaker, he/she should bear in mind that this category may be alien or new to the reader or listener. Here, the translator/ interpreter should try his/her best to clarify this concept. He/she can make use of different strategies to explain this new cultural concept to the reader or listener. In many countries there are different cultures, social classes, and languages which makes it hard for the people of a particular country to communicate with each other because every person's culture reflects his/her way of thinking and ideology. The problem is, of course, more acute when dealing with cultural differences between nations? The translator/ interpreter should be good reader of the text from the foreign culture he/she is going to translate. He/she should be acquainted with cultural issues of that language and country to be able to transmit them in the target language. If cultural notions are not transmitted correctly to the reader or listener, a communication gap or breakdown will occur. 2-4 Punctuation (in translation) Punctuation is everything in written language other than the actual letters or numbers, including punctuation marks, inter-word spaces, and indentation. Punctuation marks are symbols that direct the reader to the way of reading and understanding the text. Sometimes a hesitation in speaking or a comma in writing can lead to totally different meanings. Not all differences will be radical, but sometimes small differences can lead to important misunderstandings and gaps. In interpretation, hesitation in the right place can lead to the ideal understanding and no hesitation can lead to breakdown in communication. 2-5 Feedback from the interlocutors The reactions or feedback that the translator/interpreter gets from the receivers, especially in interpretation can guide you to reach your goal or can misguide you. In translation (written form), it is not always possible for the translator to correct the problems of translation which lead to breakdown in communication. But in interpretation, the feedback from the interlocutor)s) can help the interpreter to correct him/herself whenever a gap or breakdown takes place during the communication process. This feedback can be an eye contact or a nod. 2-6 Characteristics of the audience Most of the time, the age and gender of the audience can guide the translator to a specific way of translation. Sometimes one original text is translated for different receivers based on their age. For example, the book "Little Prince" has been translated in Iran by translators such as Shamloo, Najafi and Ghazi based on different age groups. It is the way of narration and the choice of words and structures of a language that differentiate the texts prepared for adults or children. It is the job of the translator to observe this in addition to other factors to make a translation suitable for children or adults. Sometimes a book is written for a specific gender. The translator should be very careful to transfer those elements implemented in the original text into the target text to attract the same gender in the target language. So based on the skopos theory, the purpose and aim of translation can determine the special way it should be for a special gender or age group. ConclusionPeople who are proficient in grammar and have a vast vocabulary are not necessarily good communicators. Such people may also be faced with communication breakdowns because a good knowledge of grammar and vocabulary is not enough to overcome the unavoidable gaps and misunderstandings that occur during the communication process. Good language competence, knowing cultural differences, good knowledge of grammar, vocabulary and punctuation, paying attention to the feedback, age and gender of the receivers are the tools in the hand of the translator/ interpreter that help to save a translation/ interpretation as communication process from breakdowns.

Translation Theory 4

An Analysis of Google Translate Accuracy by Milam Aiken and Shilpa Balan http://translationjournal.net/journal/56google.htm

Introduction lthough not appropriate for all situations, machine translation (MT) is now being used by many translators to aid their work. Many others use MT to get a quick grasp of foreign text from email, Web pages, or other computer-based material which they would not otherwise understand. Free, Web-based MT services are available to assist with this task, but relatively few studies have analyzed their accuracies. In particular, to our knowledge, there has been no comprehensive analysis of how well Google Translate (GT) performs, perhaps the most used system. Here, we investigate the translation accuracy of 2,550 language-pair combinations provided by this software. Results show that the majority of these combinations provide adequate comprehension, but translations among Western languages are generally best and those among Asian languages are often poor. Background Although Google Translate provides translations among a large number of languages, the accuracies vary greatly. The use of machine translation for preparation of a rough draft is a common practice among many professional translators (Champollion, 2003; Lagoudaki, 2008; O'Hagan & Ashworth, 2002), and many others use the technology to obtain the gist of foreign text because of its availability and relatively low cost (Altay, 2002). For example, it would be difficult to find a person quickly to translate a Web page in Finnish to Hindi, and the reader might only want to find out the basic content. Some professional translators might charge US $0.05 per word, and thus, a human translation of only 520 words would cost $26, far more than the reader might be willing to spend on questionable material. Even if a human translator is available, results can be obtained from MT much quicker. One study (Ablanedo, et al., 2007) found that a free Web-based MT system was 195 times faster than humans. Further, MT and human translation are not mutually exclusive. Once the reader has skimmed the results from the software, he or she might pay a professional if a more accurate translation is required. Several free Web-based MT systems are available, including: Applied Language Google Translate SDL Automated Translation Solutions Windows Live Translator Yahoo! Babel Fish SYSTRAN However, few studies have comprehensively evaluated their translation accuracy. One study (Bezhanova, et al., 2005) compared three systems and found LogoMedia to be best, followed by PROMT, and SYSTRAN. Another study (Aiken, et al., 2009a) compared four systems and found that Google Translate was best, followed by Yahoo, X10, and Applied Language. Finally, an NIST comparison of 22 MT systems in 2005 (many not free or Web-based) found that GT was often first and never lower than third in the rankings using text translated from Arabic to English and from Chinese to English. More detailed studies have been made of individual systems, e.g. Yahoo-SYSTRAN (Aiken, et al., 2006), but we believe Google Translate is used more frequently, provides more language-pair combinations, and is probably more accurate overall, and therefore, we will be focusing on it (Aiken & Ghosh, 2009; Och, 2009). Automatic Evaluation of GT A few studies have attempted to assess GT's accuracy (e.g., Aiken, et al., 2009b), but to our knowledge, there has been no published, comprehensive evaluation of Google Translate's accuracy, i.e., an analysis of all language pairs. Because it is impractical to obtain human translators for all 51 languages to analyze 50 passages of text each, automatic evaluation is necessary. Although several techniques exist, BLEU (Bilingual Evaluation Understudy) is perhaps the most common (Papineni, et al., 2002), and some studies have shown that it achieves a high correlation with human judgments of quality (Coughlin, 2003; Culy & Richemann, 2003). Using this technique, scores ranging from 0 to 100 are calculated for a sample of translated text by comparing it to a reference translation, and the method takes into account the number of words that are the same in the two passages as well as the word order. To help judge the appropriateness of using BLEU to analyze 2,550 (51 x 50) language pairs, we had two independent evaluators assess the comprehensibility of 50 non-English text samples translated to English with GT. (Note: At the time of the evaluation, GT supported only 51 languages. Armenian, Azerbaijani, Basque, Georgian, Haitian Creole, Latin, and Urdu have since been added to make a total of 58 languages supported.) The equivalent text for each of the following sentences (Flesch Reading Ease score of 81.6 on a scale of 0=hard to100=easy, Flesch-Kincaid grade level of 3.6 on a scale of 1 to 14) was obtained for all of the 50 non-English languages from Omniglot: Pleased to meet you. My hovercraft is full of eels. One language is never enough. I don't understand. I love you. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. The scores from Evaluator 1 and Evaluator 2 were significantly correlated (R = 0.527, p < 0.001), and the scores from each evaluator were also significantly correlated with the BLEU scores calculated using Asia Online's Language Studio Lite software (Evaluator 1: R = 0.789, p < 0.001; Evaluator 2: R = 0.506, p < 0.001). In addition, BLEU scores were significantly correlated (R = 0.499, p = 0.003) with comprehension measures from Aiken & Vanjani (2009) (R = 0.447, p = 0.010). Thus, we believe BLEU scores give a good indication of how well humans would understand the translated text. We used Language Studio Lite to calculate BLEU scores for each of 2,550 translations obtained with GT for the text above. For example, the equivalent text for the six items was retrieved for French, translated to German with GT, and then, the BLEU score was calculated to see how well the translation matched the equivalent German phrases. The table of 2,550 BLEU scores can be found HERE. In this table, the source languages appear as row headings, and the destination languages appear as column headings. For example, the text in Arabic (source) was translated to Afrikaans (destination), and this translation was compared to the equivalent text in Afrikaans, resulting in a BLEU score of 46. Next, we averaged the translations for each language pair to obtain an overall measure of how understandable translations between two languages would be. For example, the BLEU score for Icelandic to Bulgarian is 42, and the score for Bulgarian to Icelandic is 49, giving a final average of 45.5. The sorted list of 1,275 combined language pairs can be found HERE. (Note: The language order in this list is random. That is, Japanese-Malay is the same as Malay-Japanese.) Comprehension Sufficiency The language pair ranking gives an indication of the relative accuracy of translations among various language pairs, but it does not provide information on how adequate they are. For example, would translations between a pair of languages with an average BLEU score of 50.0 be sufficiently understandable, or is a minimum score of 70.0 required? Obviously, a higher standard should be placed on translations of legal, financial, medical, or other critical information, and a lower standard is probably alright for gathering the gist of informal, relatively unimportant material. One standard is the reading comprehension score from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) required by many universities in the United States for students whose primary language is not English. For example, UCLA's graduate program requires a minimum score of 21 out of 30, while Auburn's MBA program requires a minimum of 16. In one study (Aiken, et al., 2011), 75 American students whose primary language was English took reading comprehension tests comprised of TOEFL passages in Chinese, German, Hindi, Korean, Malay, and Spanish translated to English using Google Translate. Results showed an average reading score of 21.90, just above the 21 minimum required by UCLA's graduate program, indicating that the comprehension of these translations was, on average, sufficient for material that a graduate student might encounter during the course of studies. The corresponding average BLEU score for these six tests was 19.67. However, the material in our analysis was easier (Flesch Reading Ease = 81.6: Grade = 3.6 versus the TOEFL tests' Reading Ease = 63.5 and Grade Level = 8.3), and therefore, the average BLEU score of the six items above translated to English from Chinese, German, Hindi, Korean, Malay, and Spanish was much higher (58.83). If we assume a linear relationship between the BLEU and TOEFL reading comprehension scores, the corresponding TOEFL score for the six items translated to English from the six languages would be 24.5 out of 30. The adjusted minimum TOEFL reading scores for this easier material for UCLA would be 26.2 and for Auburn would be 20.0. Using 26.2 as the standard, 737 of the 1,275 language combinations would be sufficient for comprehension of graduate college material at UCLA, and 865 would be sufficient using Auburn's MBA standard. ConclusionAlthough Google Translate provides translations among a large number of languages, the accuracies vary greatly. This study gives for the first time an estimate of how good a potential translation might be using the software. Our analysis shows that translations between European languages are usually good, while those involving Asian languages are often relatively poor. Further, the vast majority of language combinations probably provide sufficient accuracy for reading comprehension in college. There are several limitations to the study, however. First, a very limited text sample was used due to the difficulty of acquiring equivalent text for 50 different languages. Other, more complicated text samples are likely to result in lower BLEU scores. On the other hand, only one reference text was used in the calculations, again, due to the problem of obtaining similar passages. That is, each translation was compared to only one "correct" result. Other acceptable translations using alternative wording and synonyms would result in higher BLEU scores. Finally, human judgments of comprehension are usually preferable to automatic evaluation, but in this case, it was impractical due to the many language combinations that had to be assessed. Finally, this evaluation is not static. Google Translate continually adds new languages, and the existing language translation algorithm is constantly improved as the software is trained with additional text and volunteers correct mistranslations. Although its performance is never likely to reach the level of an expert human's, it can provide quick, cheap translations for unusual language pairs. Shilpa Balan

Translation Theory 3

Translation Theory

By T. David Gordon, 1985.

http://www.bible-researcher.com/gordon.html

While not everyone who drives an automobile needs to understand the theory behind the internal combustion engine, someone does need to know this theory. I may be able to drive my Pontiac without any knowledge of internal combustion engines, until the Pontiac breaks down. Then, I must find someone (presumably a mechanic) who does in fact know enough theory to get the Pontiac running again.

The same is true of translation theory. It is not necessary for everyone to know translation theory, nor is it even necessary for pastors and teachers to know everything about translation theory. It is necessary for pastors and teachers in the American church at the end of the twentieth century to know something about translation theory, for two reasons. First, it will affect the way we interpret the Bible for our people. If we are completely unaware of translation theory, we may unwittingly mislead our brothers and sisters in our interpretation. Second, there are so many English translations available, that no contemporary pastor will be able to escape the inevitable questions about which translations are superior.

It is not my intention to provide anything like an exhaustive approach to either translation theory or semantic theory (relax, I'll define this word later). Rather, I intend to discuss briefly the more important observations, which may be useful to the pastoral ministry.

1. Communication has three parties.

Translation theory shares a number of concerns with what is commonly called communication theory. Perhaps the most important observation which the communication theorists have produced for translators is the recognition that every act of communication has three dimensions: Speaker (or author), Message, and Audience. The more we can know about the original author, the actual message produced by that author, and the original audience, the better acquainted we will be with that particular act of communication. An awareness of this tri-partite character of communication can be very useful for interpreters. Assuming that an act of communication is right now taking place, as you read what I wrote, there are three dimensions to this particular act of communication: myself, and what I am intending to communicate; the actual words which are on this page; and what you understand me to be saying. When the three dimensions converge, the communication has been efficient.

If we know, perhaps from another source, what an individual author's circumstances are, this may help us understand the actual message produced. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "Letters from Prison" are better understood by someone who knows the circumstances under which they were written rather than by someone who is oblivious to mid-20th century American history. If we know information about the author's audience, this may also help us to understand the message itself. John Kennedy's famous, "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech is better understood if one understands the apprehensions which many West German citizens had about American foreign policy during the early 1960s (and, knowing the audience was German may help explain why he did not speak this sentence in English!).

Recognizing that in addition to the message itself, there are the two other components of author and audience, the interpreter attempts to uncover as much information as possible about the author and audience. This is why biblical scholars spend so much time attempting to locate the circumstances of a given epistle; they are trying to discover information about author and audience, which will help complete the understanding of the particular act of communication represented by the message.

At this point, an important warning needs to be expressed. For students of literature whose original audience and author are not present (i.e., dead), we only have direct access to one of the three parties in the communicative process: the message itself. Whereas we would be profited by having direct access to author and audience ("Paul, what in the world did you mean about baptizing for the dead?"; or, "How did it hit you Galatians when Paul said he wished his troublers would castrate themselves?"), it would be incorrect to suggest that we must have such access for any understanding to take place. Frequently one encounters the extravagant statement to the effect that "one cannot understand a biblical book unless one understands the author's (or audience's) circumstances." The problem with such statements is that they imply that we can have no understanding without access to information which simply does not always exist. We haven't any idea who wrote the epistle to the Hebrews, or why, other than what may be indicated in the letter itself. Does this mean that we can't understand it in any sense? I think not. We just have to recognize that information, which would assist the act of interpretation, is, in this case, missing.

Related to this warning is a second. For Protestants, scripture itself is authoritative. Our reconstructions, often highly conjectural of the historical circumstances under which a given biblical work was written and read, are not authoritative, by my understanding of Protestant theology. Those reconstructions may assist our understanding of the biblical text, but they are not, in and of themselves, of any religious authority.

Finally, we might add that the essential error of many exegetical theories is their exclusion of one or more of these three parties from consideration. While many important debates are continuing to influence interpretive theory, our evaluation of these debates would do well to retain a role for each of the three above-mentioned dimensions.

2. Formal and Dynamic Equivalence

One of the ongoing debates about translations revolves around the question of whether, and in what degree, the translation should reflect the syntax, or form, of the original language. All translators agree that the translation should reflect faithfully the message of the original, but all are not agreed on whether the translation should adhere closely to the grammatical forms of the original language.

Translations can be located on a spectrum, which would have, at one extreme, rigid adherence to the form of the original language (formal equivalence), and at the other extreme, complete disregard for the form (not the message) of the original language (dynamic equivalence). An interlinear would come the closest to the first extreme, followed by the NASB. At the other extreme would be the NEB and TEV. In between would be the RSV and NIV, with the RSV leaning more toward a formal equivalence, and the NIV leaning more toward a dynamic equivalence.

It is probably fair to say that most contemporary linguists favor the dynamic equivalence approach in theory, though they might be disappointed in the various attempts at producing one. The reason for preferring to reproduce the thought of the original without attempting to conform to its form is that all languages have their own syntax. While the syntax of one language may be similar to the syntax of other languages, it is also dissimilar as well. Thus, if we attempt to adhere to the formal syntax of another language, we reproduce forms which are abnormal or confusing, if not downright distracting in the target language.

For example, Greek tends to have very long sentences, whose various clauses are arranged in a logically hierarchical fashion. That is, there will be a number of dependent clauses connected to an independent clause. This type of sentence structure, perfectly normal in Greek, is called hypotactic (clauses are arranged logically under one another). English, by contrast, is not so comfortable with long sentences, and does not provide any easy way of indicating which clauses are dependent upon others. Our sentence structure is called paratactic (clauses are arranged logically alongside of one another). If we attempt to reproduce, in English, sentences of the same length as the Greek original, our audience will not be able to follow our translation. Ephesians 1:3-14, for instance, is one sentence in Greek, with well-defined subordinate clauses. If we attempt to reproduce a sentence of this length in English, the result will be so awkward that few, if any, English readers would be able to follow it. Consequently, translators must break the longer Greek sentences into shorter English sentences.

For the pastor and teacher, it is important to be able to recognize the hypotactic structure of the original language, because it is frequently of theological and ethical significance. For instance, there is only one imperative (independent clause) in the Great Commission -- "make disciples." All the other verbs are dependent. The other clauses help to describe what the commandment means. Most English translations, however, obscure this matter by translating the Great Commission as though it were a string of equivalent imperatives. What's worse, they tend to treat one of the dependent clauses as though it were the major (independent) clause ("Go"). So the teacher or pastor needs to be able to understand what is going on in the structure of the original language, without necessarily trying to reproduce it in an English translation.

There are other differences between the two languages. Greek typically uses passive verbs; English prefers active verbs. Greek typically makes nouns out of verbs (making "redemption" as common as "redeem''). Speakers of English are not as comfortable with these abstractions; we are happier with verbs. A dynamic equivalence translation will commonly reproduce the meaning of the Greek in a more natural manner in English. In 2 Thess 2:13, for instance, pistei aletheias, is translated "belief in the truth" (formal equivalence) by the RSV, but "the truth that you believe" (dynamic equivalence) by the NEB. The latter, while not any more accurate than the former, is a little more natural, and thus more easily understood.

A classic example of the difference between English and Greek syntax is evidenced by the difference in their respective employment of the participle. First, the Greek participle is much more common than the English. But the Greek participle is also used differently than the English participle. Greek commonly employs the participle in an attributive fashion, as a verbal adjective. This is very rare in English. James Taylor does sing about the "The Walking Man," but this is rare outside of artistic expression. We would normally produce a relative clause, "the man who walks." Because of the differences in the way the two languages use their respective participles, we simply cannot translate a Greek participle with an English participle in many cases, without being obscure or ambiguous. Dikaiothentes in Romans 5:1 should not be translated, "having been justified" (NASB: formal equivalence), but, "since we are justified" (RSV: dynamic equivalence).

There are problems, however, with dynamic equivalence translations. Since the translator is "freer" from the grammatical forms of the original language he is more likely to exceed the bounds of an accurate translation, in an effort to speak naturally in the native language. That is, the dynamic equivalence translations are capable of being more natural and more precise than are formal equivalence translations, but they are also more capable of being precisely wrong. For instance, in Romans 8:3, Paul uses the phrase: dia tes sarkos. A formal equivalent translation, the RSV, renders this "by the flesh," which is faithful to the original but somewhat ambiguous in English. The NIV renders this much more precisely, by the phrase, "by the sinful nature." Unfortunately, the NIV is precisely wrong here, because Paul is not talking about a lower nature, or a sinful nature at all. In fact, he is not speaking anthropologically, but redemptive-historically. In this particular case, I believe we would be better off with the ambiguous "flesh," and have to ask what, 'flesh' means for Paul, than to have the more precise but utterly un-Pauline "sinful nature."

Another problem associated with dynamic equivalence translations is related to their use as study Bibles. Since a given word may have a number of meanings, it is frequently impossible, and more frequently confusing, to attempt to translate a given Greek word with the same English word in every case. Consequently, the dynamic equivalence translation can give a more specific rendering in English, being unbound by an attempt to reproduce the same Greek word in the same English manner. This produces better understanding, frequently, of individual sentences or clauses. However, it does not permit the English reader to know when the same Greek word lay behind two different English words. Since the only way to know what a word means is by first examining its full range of uses, there is no way for the English reader to know what words are behind the English words found.

For instance, when Paul says he could not address the Corinthians as pneumatikoi, but rather as sarkinoi (1 Cor 3), he employs the adjectival forms of what we normally translate "Spirit" and "flesh." And, in Romans 8 (as well as elsewhere), it is clear that life in the Spirit is redeemed life; whereas life in the flesh is unredeemed life. If the adjectives in 1 Cor are translated "spiritual," and "fleshly," the reader can see the correspondence to other Pauline passages, and understand that Paul is saying, in effect, "I could not address you as redeemed people, but as unredeemed people." But the NIV construes sarx as "sinful nature" in Rom 8, and sarkinos as "worldly" in 1 Cor 3, with the result that the reader of this translation is not aware that in the original the same root form was employed. The conclusion of this is that the dynamic equivalence translation, when done well, renders in more precise and more vivid English particular expressions. However, it makes it more difficult to compare individual passages with parallel passages elsewhere.

In any given congregation, a variety of translations will be present. The teachers in the church must have the competence to discern which one represents the original most accurately in English in any circumstance. In my judgment, none of the contemporary translations is manifestly superior to the others. Each is a blend of strengths and weaknesses, due to the difficulty of the task.

From the pulpit, of course, some versions can be excluded rather easily. Paraphrases, while useful to illustrate a point, should never be used as the basic sermon text, because they reflect so thoroughly the opinions of the paraphraser. Also, children's Bibles, such as the Good News, and, to a lesser degree, the NIV should not be used as the basis of a sermon directed toward the entire congregation. The NASB should not be used, simply because its English is atrocious. Its rigid adherence to the formal equivalence principle, while making it highly useful in the study, renders it completely inappropriate in a setting where communication is important.

The NIV should not be used from the pulpit, in my judgment, because it is a sectarian translation. It is a self-confessedly "evangelical" translation, which excluded non-evangelicals from the translation process. It is therefore ecclesiastically unacceptable (it excludes from the outset people who don't call themselves "evangelical," just as the Kingdom Translation excludes people who don't call themselves Jehovah's Witnesses). In fact, even for study purposes, one will have to be cautious about the evangelical bias reflected in this translation, whereby the weaknesses, as well as the strengths, of evangelicalism have not been offset by a more "inclusive" committee.

Specifically, the NIV shows many signs of being individualistic, experientialist, and revivalistic (I am speaking about the NIV New Testament; I haven't evaluated the NIV Old Testament thoroughly yet). At the same time, the NIV ought to be in the minister's study because it is a good illustration of the demands of a dynamic equivalence translation, and it is also very successful at many points. The RSV, reflecting the breadth of the church, a high style of English, and a reasonably accurate representation of the original text, is perhaps the preferred text for pulpit use.

3. Translation is a theological task

It has become increasingly clear that translation cannot really be performed in a theological vacuum. When a variety of linguistic options present themselves, theological factors can influence the decision to choose one option over the other. In fact, such factors should influence the translation. The resolution of the translation question about how to translate telos in Romans 10:4 is resolved in large part by resolving larger questions about Paul's theology; how he understands the relation between the older testament and the Christ event, etc. Since theology is to be determined by the Bible, and since translating the Bible is determined, at least in part, by theological considerations, it is easy to see that there is something of a circle here. Fortunately, it is not a vicious cycle, because if one is willing to entertain sympathetically a variety of options, one can grow in the confidence with which one evaluates a given translation. One must never pretend, however, that translation is a step of "pre-exegesis" or "pre-interpretation." The first step of interpretation is translation. This step will influence all other steps, so it must be approached with the entire arsenal of theological tools.